The present papers, however, by examining rigorously the cell biology of these mutations and the CAP-Gly domain itself have opened doors to further understanding retrograde movement and stress the importance of maintaining a finely tuned axonal transport system. “
“Studies of cortical plasticity have classically focused on glutamatergic, excitatory synaptic changes. A large fraction of the excitatory synapses in the neocortex are impinging on dendritic spines.

This allows researchers to monitor the formation and elimination of excitatory synapses by watching BMS-387032 molecular weight the appearance and disappearance of fluorescently labeled dendritic spines in live neurons. Similarly, large glutamatergic axonal varicosities

are often used as anatomical surrogates for vesicular presynaptic boutons. The turnover of these structures occurs throughout life even in virtually naive animals, and newly added synapses stably integrate into cortical circuits upon changes in experience or learning (Fu et al., 2012, Hofer et al., 2009 and Holtmaat and Svoboda, 2009). Similar to their excitatory counterparts, inhibitory synapses are thought to display continuous structural changes. Synaptic inhibition in the neocortex is governed by a diverse group of interneurons that transmit GABA or glycine in spatially and temporally discrete manners (Markram et al., 2004). Inhibitory inputs can modulate excitatory neuronal membrane potentials, enforce unless spike timing, and effectively restrain the summation Autophagy pathway inhibitor of postsynaptic excitatory

potentials (Isaacson and Scanziani, 2011). Therefore, regulated inhibition through the formation and elimination of synapses could efficiently leverage excitatory activity and hence cortical network processing or plasticity. Studies of inhibitory synapse dynamics on excitatory cells have been complicated due to the lack of postsynaptic anatomical proxies that can be resolved by light microscopy. Recent time-lapse imaging studies in vivo have described experience-dependent and structural remodeling of GABAergic interneuron axonal boutons, suggesting that some excitatory cells are subject to changes in inhibitory synaptic input (Chen et al., 2011 and Keck et al., 2011). However, from these studies it is difficult to deduce the identity let alone the dendritic compartments of the postsynaptic cells that may be affected. In this issue of Neuron, Chen et al. (2012) and van Versendaal et al. (2012) present an elegant method for studying inhibitory synapse dynamics in excitatory cells in vivo based on fluorescently tagged gephyrin. This synaptic scaffolding protein is highly enriched in GABAergic and glycinergic postsynaptic compartments, and when expressed in neurons, fluorescent puncta can be observed, which are likely to represent inhibitory synapses ( Moss and Smart, 2001).