In the past, Cephalosporins have often been used in the treatment of intra-abdominal infections. Among third generation cephalosporins, subgroups with both limited and strong activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa (cefepime and ceftazidime) have been used in conjunction with metronidazole to treat IAIs. Enterobacteriaceae can have acquired resistance to both cephalosporins, while such resistance is intrinsic in Enterococci [221–223]. In light of the increasing prevalence of ESBL-producing enterobacteriaceae due to selection pressures related to overuse JNK inhibitor concentration of cephalosporins, routine use of these antibiotics is strongly discouraged. Aztreonam is a parenteral synthetic

beta-lactam antibiotic and the first monobactam marketed for clinical use. The drug exhibits potent in vitro activity against a wide spectrum of gram-negative aerobic pathogens (including Pseudomonas aeruginosa), but its routine use is discouraged due to selection pressures favoring resistant strains, and it

therefore shares the same constraints associated with cephalosporin use. Carbapenems offer a wide spectrum of antimicrobial activity against gram-positive and gram-negative aerobic and anaerobic pathogens (with the exception of MDR resistant gram-positive cocci). For more than 2 decades, carbapenems have been considered the agents of “last resort” for multidrug-resistant infections caused by Enterobacteriaceae. selleck chemicals In the last decade, increased carbapenem consumption has been associated with an increased emergence of carbapenem resistance among Enterobacteriacea, particularly in Klebsiella

pneumoniae. The recent and rapid spread of serine carbapenemases in Klebsiella pneumoniae (known as Klebsiella learn more pneumoniae carbapenemases or KPCs) has become an issue of crucial importantance in hospitals worldwide [224]. Group 1 carbapenems include ertapenem, a once-a-day carbapenem that shares the activity of imipenem and meropenem against most species, including extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing pathogens, but is not active against Pseudomonas and Enterococcus species [225, 226]. Group 2 includes imipenem/cilastatin, meropenem, and doripenem, which share activity against non-fermentative gram-negative bacilli. Researchers have reported doripenem’s slightly elevated in vitro activity against certain Pseudomonas strains in registrative trials [227]. Further, given their excellent tissue penetration and strong activity against aerobic gram-negative bacteria, fluoroquinolones have been widely used in recent years for treatment of IAIs. It should also be noted that all fluoroquinolones are rapidly and almost completely absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. A combination of ciprofloxacin/metronidazole has been perhaps the most commonly used regimen for complicated IAIs in recent years. The latest quinolone, Moxifloxacin, has demonstrated to be active against a wide range of aerobic gram-positive and gram-negative species [228].