9 (C-3), 59.0 (C-17), 55.2 (C-14), 47.5 (C-5), 46.7 (C-8), 41.6 (C-20), 39.7 (C-13), 37.7 (C-4), 33.7 (C-25), 34.7 (C-10), 33.3 (C-25), 39.6–25.9 (10 × CH2), 23.5–15.5 (9 × CH3). Lanost-20-en-3β-acetate (9): mp 156–57 °C, check details white granules, C32H54O2, m/z 470 (M+). In the infrared spectrum prominent peaks appeared at 1740 (C O stretching), 1240 cm-1 (O C–O of acetate), 1375 and 1355 (gem dimethyl stretching) and at 970 cm−1 indicating the presence of disubstituted trans double bond. In the 1H NMR spectrum, signals for 8 methyl groups i.e.

24 protons were observed at δ 0.79–1.06 suggesting that the acetate could be a tetracyclic triterpene. The presence of two olefinic protons was shown by multiplet at δ 5.18. Three protons of acetyl group appeared at δ 2.05 while a multiplet at δ 4.50 was assigned to the C-3 proton attached to the acetoxy function (>CHOAc). The remaining methylene and methine protons appeared as a multiplet at δ 1.13–1.98. In the 13C NMR spectrum, two olefinic methines C-22 and C-23 were observed at 145.2 and 121.6 respectively. The seven methine carbons C-3, C-5, C-8, C-9, C-17, C-20 and C-25 appeared

at δ 80.9, 47.5, 47.2, 46.7, 55.2, 41.6 and 33.3 respectively and a carbonyl carbon C-31 at δ 171.0. The four quaternary carbons C-4, C-10, C-13 and C-14 appeared at δ 37.7, 34.7, 32.5 and 38.2. In addition to these the ten methylene carbons were observed at δ 25.9–39.6 while nine methyl carbons appeared at δ 15.5–23.5. 19 The above learn more spectral

data led to the identification of compound 9 as a novel lanostane derivative, lanost-22-en-3β-acetate being reported for the first time. α-Amyrin octacosanoate (10): mp 63–65 °C, white granules, C58H104O2, m/z 470 (M+), IR (vmax) cm−1(KBr): 1735, 1640,1240, 1020, 730, 720. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 300 MHz): 5.37 (1H, d), 4.50 (1H, dd), 2.32 (2H, m), 1.90–1.21 (23H, m), 1.25 (50H, br s), 1.02–0.67 (9 × CH3). On hydrolysis with 5% alcoholic potassium hydroxide it gave α-amyrin 20 and octacosanoic acid. 11 β-Sitosterol (11): mp 135–136 °C,21 white needles, C29H50O, m/z 414 (M+), IR (vmax) cm−1(KBr): 3400, 1640 and 1090. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 300 MHz): 5.27 (1H, t), 3.48 (1H, m), 2.0–1.19 (30 H, m), 1.16–0.70 (6 × CH3, s,d). β-Sitosterol-β-D-glucoside (12): mp 278–280 °C,22 white granules, C35H60O6, IR (vmax) cm−1 (KBr): however 3400 (broad), 1640 and 1120. 1H NMR (CDCl3 + DMSO-d6, 300 MHz): 5.42 (1H, t), 4.49 (1H, dd), 3.98–3.33 (6H, m), 1.76-0.71 (48H, m). It was observed that both the root bark and heartwood extracts exhibited significant activity by both the methods; the heartwood extract showing activity even better than that of standard ascorbic acid. On determining of free radical scavenging activity using DPPH (Table 1) the low absorption value at 10 μg/ml indicated these to be effective even at a very low concentration. Also, IC50 value of the root bark (IC50 = 5.80 μg/ml) and heartwood (IC50 = 4.

The developed Real Time PCR was proved to be appropriate to detect B. canis subspecies in endemic areas. The authors thank CNPq (The Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development) for the fellowship to Livio M. Costa-Júnior, and CAPES and DAAD for the financial support given for personnel exchanging during the project (Project 182/04). “
“Neospora caninum (Apicomplexa: Sarcocystidae) is an obligate intracellular protozoon that is considered to be the main cause of neonatal

mortality and abortion among dairy cattle worldwide, capable of infecting both mammals and birds ( Anderson et al., 2000 and Dubey, 2003). The presence of antibodies to N. caninum see more in serum indicates exposure to the parasite and can be identified by serological tests, such as the indirect fluorescence antibody test (IFAT), considered the gold standard test and immunoenzymatic

assay (ELISA) ( Dubey, 2003). Prevalence studies on N. caninum in sheep are scarce. In Brazil, studies on the seroprevalence Selleck Everolimus (IFAT) of natural infection due to N. caninum in sheep have presented a wide range, going from rates of less than 10% ( Figliuolo et al., 2004 and Machado et al., 2011) to a rate of 30% ( Aguiar et al., 2004 and Andreotti et al., 2009) in asymptomatic sheep. The state Minas Gerais is the largest state and has the second biggest sheep population of the four states of southeastern Linifanib (ABT-869) region of Brazil, with 223,434 head (IBGE, 2009), mostly aimed at meat production (Anualpec, 2008). With an area of 588,383.6 km2, Minas Gerais presents significant climatic and socioeconomic differences. Since 2000, sheep-husbandry has been taking on an important role within livestock farming in Brazil. With acquisition of animals from different regions, commercial

meat sheep-rearing has increased considerably in areas with no traditional culture in sheep production, like the central-western-southern region of Minas Gerais. The aim of this study was to determine the seroprevalence and risk factors associated with seropositivity to N. caninum among sheep in commercial herds in the homogenous central-western-southern region of the state Minas Gerais, Brazil. This region has well-defined dry and rainy seasons, mean annual temperature of 21.2 °C and annual rainfall ranging from 1000 to 2000 mm. Sampling was organized at two levels: farms and animals. Based on a combined list of sheep herds from the Association of Sheep and Goat Farmers of the State Minas Gerais (ACCOMIG) and the state government agency for animal health (Instituto Mineiro de Agropecuária, IMA), a non-probabililistic sampling was used to select the farms. Animals were randomly selected and a fixed sampling of eight sheep from each property was used ( Bennett et al., 1991). Blood was collected by jugular vein puncture and the serum was separated and stored at −20 °C until used for analysis.

We are grateful to all patients who donated their blood samples for this study and to Thongchai Hongsrimuang, Sunee Seethamchai, Pannadhat Areekul, Ratiporn Kosuwin, Urassaya Pattanawong, Teerayot Kobasa and the staff of the Bureau of Vector Borne Disease, Department of Disease Control, Ministry of Public Health, Thailand, for assistance in field work. This research was supported by grants from the National Research Council of Thailand and the Thai Government Research Budget

to S.J and C.P.; The Thailand Research Fund (RMU5080002) to C.P.; and from the National Institutes of Health (GM43940) to A.L.H. “
“Rotavirus is the most common cause of acute gastroenteritis in children under 5 years of age [1]. In developed countries, rotavirus gastroenteritis

remains a common Cabozantinib purchase cause of hospitalization at great cost to health services [2]. In England and Wales, the annual incidence Selleckchem HIF inhibitor of rotavirus hospitalizations is estimated at 4.5 per 1000 children under the age of 5 years and the cost to the National Health Service estimated to be GBP 14.2 million per year [3]. The second generation of live oral rotavirus vaccines have demonstrated safety and efficacy [4] and [5] and are increasingly being used routinely as part of childhood immunization schedules in a number of middle and high income countries [6] and [7]. The Rotarix vaccine, made from the most common human serotype G1P1A[8], is recommended Cytidine deaminase by WHO as a two-dose schedule to be given at two and four months of age [8]. RotaTeq, a pentavalent vaccine developed from a bovine rotavirus strain and combined with reassorted strains of human serotypes G1, G2, G3, G4

and P1A[8], is WHO-recommended as a three-dose schedule to be given at two, four and six months of age [8]. In the United States, following the introduction of RotaTeq in 2006, there was a delay in the timing of peak incidence in the 2007–2008 season by two to four months and fewer cases overall compared to previous years [6]. This provides the first indication, post-licensure, that rotavirus vaccination reduces the burden of rotavirus disease in a large population and suggests that vaccination may also have an impact on transmission. Other high and middle income countries which have introduced rotavirus vaccination have shown similar effects [7] and [9]. In England and Wales, the introduction of rotavirus vaccination is currently under consideration. This study aims to develop a dynamic model of rotavirus transmission, and apply it to daily case reports of rotavirus disease from England and Wales. Using this model, we examine the potential epidemiological impact of a rotavirus mass vaccination programme. In temperate countries, most rotavirus disease occurs in late winter or early spring [10].

[1]) and assuming that vaccination does not affect duration of colonisation. The main find more factor affecting how the bias in the estimated vaccine efficacy becomes negligible is the prevalence of colonisation at the time of vaccination. When the prevalence is close to 0 (left-hand panel), the mean of VEacq estimates from cross-sectional data closely approximate the true VEacq as long as the samples are collected

2–3 months after vaccination. When the prevalence of colonisation is higher (right-hand panel), the bias is initially clearly negative and becomes relatively small only after several months since vaccination. As a rule-of-thumb for both scenarios, the time from vaccination until nasopharyngeal SB431542 purchase sampling is determined by the rate of clearance rather than the rate of pneumococcal acquisition. This is shown by comparison between the “high” vs. “moderate” scenarios for overall acquisition in Fig. 1. Under both scenarios, colonisation should be sampled

only after at least twice the average duration of a carriage episode has passed since the immune-response. In the example, the mean duration was approximately 2 months and the sampling should thus occur 4 months after the immuno-response or somewhat later. The results for the combined vaccine efficacy against acquisition and duration (VET) were similar (data not shown). Apart from the requirement of approximate steady-state at the time

of sampling, Idoxuridine there are other factors that rather favour early measurement of colonisation (e.g. the possibility of waning immunity or changes in exposure with age and/or season). In addition to bias, the precision of estimation and sample size (cf. Section 5) need to be considered. In general, the precision was poor in the first 2 months, in particular with low individual prevalence and moderate rate of pneumococcal acquisition (data not shown). Also serotype-specific estimates can be obtained from a cross-sectional study (cf. Section 4 in [1]). In general, their estimation performs similarly to the aggregate (i.e., all vaccine-type) efficacy. For serotypes with very low prevalence, however, the negative bias in the efficacy estimates is obviously somewhat bigger unless the sample size is very large. The sensitivity of detecting pneumococcal colonisation depends on the technique of specimen sampling and handling, and the methodology to culture, identify and serotype pneumococci [2]. The current standard, which is based on using a single nasopharyngeal swab to measure the prevalence of pneumococcal carriage, is simple and rapid. The sensitivity of a single swab to detect and identify the dominant pneumococcal serotype is high, being in the range of 85–100% [2], [3] and [4]. A key challenge to nasopharyngeal sampling remains the identification of multiple serotypes simultaneously colonising the nasopharynx.

Amongst them, IL-5 is responsible

for the selective differentiation of eosinophils [7]. IL-5 also stimulates release of eosinophils from the bone marrow into the peripheral circulation and promotes their migration to the lung upon allergen challenge; a key step in the development of lung inflammation [8] and [9]. In accord with these important roles for IL-5, antibodies that mTOR inhibitor neutralize IL-5 inhibit both allergen-induced blood eosinophilia and the recruitment of eosinophils to the lung in murine models of asthma [10] and [11]. In addition to IL-5, cytokines from the eotaxin family also stimulate eosinophils to migrate from blood into tissues [12]. There are two variants of murine eotaxin, namely eotaxin 1 (eotaxin) and eotaxin 2 which both belong to the family of CC type chemokines [13] and [14]. Murine eotaxin has marked synergism with IL-5. Anti-eotaxin and anti-IL-5 antibodies alone and in combination have been shown find more to reduce OVA-induced airway eosinophilia but failed to inhibit AHR [15]. Importantly, blocking eosinophil-activity in mice prevents allergen induced airway eosinophilia and AHR and results in reduced lung-fibrosis, a severe consequence of asthma [16] and [17]. For humans, therapeutic intervention strategies aimed at blocking the action of eosinophils have been investigated in various asthma settings and eosinophilic disorders. Blockade of IL-5

with the humanized monoclonal antibody Mepolizumab has reduced circulating and

sputum eosinophils and shown evidence for an effect on airway remodelling [17] but, has failed to achieve discernable effects on AHR or the late asthmatic response. Recent clinical testing of Mepolizumab in refractory eosinophilic asthma and prednisone dependent asthma has shown decreases in blood and sputum eosinophils and statistically significant decreases in the number of asthma exacerbations aminophylline [18] and [19]. Thus, anti-eosinophil strategies may be a promising therapy in asthma subgroups with heavy eosinophilic loads in which conventional anti-inflammatory therapy is only partially effective. Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are highly active molecules that are currently used in a numerous disease indications, including cancer and inflammation. However, due to the high amounts of antibodies required and their generally short half-life, therapies involving monoclonal antibodies are costly. In addition, long-term treatment with mAbs may result in the development of neutralizing anti-antibodies, which may reduce their efficacy or induce adverse effects [20]. Active immunization against self-antigens typically results in relatively long-lived antibody responses and has been viewed as a potential alternative to mAb therapies. It has previously been shown that highly repetitive antigens displayed on viral surfaces are able to efficiently overcome B cell unresponsiveness [21].

Unfortunately, there is little rationale for the selection Dorsomorphin of probiotic strains; none consider

the differences in vaginal microbiota observed among women and there are few well-designed randomized placebo-controlled studies. The application of genomic technologies represent a major step toward achieving this goal. Personalized treatments could be geared toward a better appreciation of species-specific and temporal changes in microbiota. The success of the HPV vaccine (reviewed by Schiller and Lowy [115]) has re-energized the field of STI vaccine research after earlier disappointing results with HSV [116] and [117] and gonorrhea [118] and [119] vaccines. There are currently several new candidate HSV and chlamydia Akt molecular weight vaccines in various stages of development and recent advances in the fields of immunology

and vaccine design offer hope for the development of vaccines targeting gonorrhea and syphilis [120]. To optimize vaccine responses against STIs, in addition to optimizing antigen types, formulations, adjuvants, and delivery methods [121], [122] and [123], we need a clear understanding of the interactions taking place at the mucosal surfaces. Vaccine development must take into account the differences between the systemic and mucosal immune responses, the compartmentalization of the mucosal immune responses, the unique characteristics of the reproductive tract mucosae, the role of the microbiome, during the impact of sex hormones, and the interactions among all of these factors. We are just beginning to decipher these complex relationships. The authors have no conflicts of interest. The authors alone are responsible for the views expressed in this article and do not necessarily represent the views, decisions or policies of the institutions with which they are affiliated. This study was supported by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious

Diseases of the National Institutes of Health under award numbers K01-AI080974 (Brotman), U19-AI084044 (Ravel, Bavoil) and R01-AI089878 (Ghanem). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health. “
“Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) is an incurable sexually transmitted pathogen that infects over 500 million people worldwide and causes an estimated 23 million new infections annually [1]. In the United States, direct annual medical costs associated with HSV-2 are estimated to be $541 million, making it the third most costly STI after HIV-1 and human papillomavirus (HPV) [2]. HSV-2 seroprevalence ranges from 16% among 14–49 year olds in the United States [3], to >80% in areas of sub-Saharan Africa [4]. HSV-2 infection rates in heavily exposed populations are nearly 100%, suggesting universal susceptibility [5]. Seroprevalence in women is up to twice as high as men, and increases with age [3] and [6].

Incidence varied greatly by geography with the highest rate ultrasound-detected intussusception of 581 per 100,000 child-years detected in the south (Vellore) and the lowest rate of 28 per 100,000 child-years detected in the north (Delhi). Approximately half (52%) of the intussusceptions were transient

and none required surgery. No cases occurred within 28 days of vaccination and no children died. The initial clinical trial results for the indigenously produced rotavirus vaccine, Rotavac, showed that the vaccine was 56% effective against severe rotavirus gastroenteritis during the first year of life which is comparable to the GDC0199 efficacy of the other internationally available vaccines in developing country settings [1], [33], [34] and [35]. In a follow-up analysis, the vaccine efficacy was shown to be sustained through the second year of life with an efficacy of VE-822 in vivo 49% in the second year of life unlike the other available vaccines which showed

a substantially reduced efficacy during the second year of life in some developing country settings [36]. The vaccine provided comparable protection against a wide variety of strains. Forty infants would need to be vaccinated to prevent a severe episode of rotavirus gastroenteritis and 21 infants would need to be vaccinated to prevent an episode of rotavirus gastroenteritis of any severity. There are additional oral rotavirus vaccines in the pipeline in India (Table 1). One such vaccine is an oral bovine rotavirus pentavalent vaccine (BRV-PV) containing Montelukast Sodium bovine-human reassortant strains of serotype G1, G2, G3, G4, and G9 that has been developed by the Serum Institute of India, Ltd. in collaboration

National Institutes of Health (NIH) in the United States [37]. This vaccine has completed animal toxicity studies and Phase I and II clinical trials in adults, toddlers, and infants and was found to be safe and immunogenic. Seroconversion rates were similar to those reported for Rotarix in India. Phase III trials to assess its efficacy against severe rotavirus gastroenteritis are planned. Another bovine human reassortant vaccine under development by Shantha Biotechnics Limited based on the National Institutes of Health’s bovine-human reassortant strains [38]. This oral bovine human reassortant tetravalent vaccine (BRV-TV) expresses serotypes G1, G2, G3, and G4. In Phase I/II clinical trials, all three concentrations of antigen tested were immunogenic and resulted in an increase in anti-rotavirus IgA antibodies. The vaccine arm with the highest concentration of antigen had the highest sero-response rate and also exceeded that of the RotaTeq arm.

Scoring was made on a 4+ scale for the amount of perivascular mononuclear cell infiltration: 0 = none, 1+ = sparse, 2+ = some, 3+ = modest, and 4+ = abundant. Scores of ≥2+ were considered consistent with a DTH reaction, similar to earlier reports whereby DTH reactions consisted of perivascular mononuclear cell infiltrate layers ≥5× “thicker” than normal

or negative control monkey skin [23]. The histological scores were summarized by group as a general indication of DTH reactivity. Heparinized blood samples were collected 7 days after the last booster. PBMC were isolated by Ficoll gradient. Cells were maintained at a density of 1 × 106 cells/mL in RPMI-1640 medium supplemented with 10% FBS (PHA).

PBMC from each monkey were loaded or not with the immunization antigen (no adjuvant) for 24 h, and later LY2157299 concentration labeled with CFSE (target cells) as described [24]. Subsequently these cells were mixed with autologous PBMC (effectors cells) at a 2:1 ratio and direct cytolysis was evaluated by FACS as the percent reduction of Obeticholic Acid purchase the CFSE labeled population [25] and [26]. A week after the sixth immunization each group of animals was conditioned to receive acute controlled full-thickness skin wounds on the dorsal area under sodium pentobarbital (30 mg/kg of body weight) anesthesia. Four symmetric ulcers were inflicted in the dorsum of each rat using disposable 8 mm diameter punch biotomes (Biopunch®, Fray). Following hemostasia, the wound contours were traced upon transparent plastic sheets for planimetric analysis. This served as the original wounded area. Wound closure dynamics were studied using the standard cutaneous round ulcer model as described previously [27]. During this period, no immunization procedures were conducted. While in the case of the weekly schedules the wounds were allowed to completely heal, for biweekly schedules the animals were sacrificed 12 days after the ulcer induction and the extent of the healing

process was to confirmed by histopathological evaluation. The effects of the vaccine administration on skin healing were evaluated using the 4 mm punch biopsies done for DTH histological assessment. Following hemostasis, the wound contours were traced upon transparent plastic sheets for planimetric analysis and closure dynamics determined using the standard cutaneous round ulcer model [27]. Wound closure dynamics was studied at days 0, 6, 12 and 21 and the percent of wound healing was calculated as the percent of wound area reduction as compared to the initial values. Wound healing measurements and histopathological characterization of both, monkeys and rat lesions were performed by technical personnel unaware of the animal’s treatment. Furthermore, the final processing of the data was also performed in a blinded fashion by a skilled professional.

7). The lower limb strength increase represented a 42% increase in baseline strength in the experimental group compared to the control group. There were no significant differences between the groups for upper limb muscle strength or upper and lower limb physical function. Group data are presented in Table 2 and individual data in Table 3 (see eAddenda for Table MLN0128 mw 3). The SMD for the 1RM chest press was 0.6, for the timed stairs

test was 0.5, and for the Grocery Shelving Task was 0.3, which represented moderate effects. No major adverse events were reported. Although five participants complained of muscle soreness during the initial weeks of training, this did not preclude them from training. The reported symptoms were mild and were to be expected in a group of novice trainees completing moderate to high intensity training. Several of the study’s findings indicate that progressive resistance training was feasible and safe for adolescents with Down syndrome when facilitated by a student mentor. Adherence to the program was excellent, 3-Methyladenine purchase adverse events were minimal, the reasons for missed sessions were unrelated to the intervention, and the only participant lost to follow-up was allocated to the control group. These data suggest progressive resistance training was an acceptable form of exercise to the participants,

a finding consistent with previous literature concluding that this type of training is safe for people with a range of health conditions and disabilities (Taylor et al 2005). This is

an important finding, as some people with intellectual Rebamipide disability and their carers are apprehensive about taking part in exercise and believe they should not engage in exercise (Heller et al 2004). Our results and future studies should alleviate this concern and may encourage people with Down syndrome to become more active. Given that people with Down syndrome are at risk of the health consequences of inactivity (Hill et al 2003), it is necessary that we identify feasible exercise options for this group. These results suggest that progressive resistance training can be a safe, socially desirable, and feasible exercise and recreation option for adolescents with Down syndrome. Our data show that progressive resistance training was effective in improving the strength of the major antigravity muscles of the lower limb (quadriceps and hip extensors) in adolescents with Down syndrome. The average percentage increase in muscle strength was 42%, which was clinically worthwhile and was similar to increases of 27–46% reported in other populations (O’Shea et al 2007, Dodd et al 2004). Although it cannot be concluded with 95% confidence that there was a change in upper limb strength, the SMD was similar in magnitude to what was observed for changes in lower limb muscle strength.

Unfortunately challenge experiments could not be performed in guinea pigs, as horses are the natural host for AHSV. The AHSV infection model using interferon-α knockout mice were recently reported [17]. The use of the small animal model for our future VP2 vaccine study should help to evaluate the vaccine efficacy. Cross-reactive Abs to genetically related AHSV serotypes were shown by IPMA with lower Ab titers than serotype

specific reactions, except for AHSV-5 and AHSV-8, in which α-AHSV-5 VP2 serum reacted strongly to both AHSV-5 and Anti-cancer Compound Library high throughput AHSV-8, and vice versa. Interestingly, no cross neutralization Abs between AHSV-5 and AHSV-8 were detected. It would be thought that more antibodies to non-neutralizing than to neutralizing domains of AHSV-5 and AHSV-8 VP2 were elicited. These variations in the feasibility of eliciting non-neutralizing Abs and nAbs between serotypes could contribute the considerable differences in the nAb titers. Although the crystal structure of AHSV VP2 has not been solved, neutralizing domains on the secondary structure containing amino acid 199–689 of VP2 were demonstrated [34]. To avoid

eliciting non-neutralizing Abs, expression and immunization of only neutralization domain of VP2 may help to induce nAbs more efficiently. In contrast to AHSV-5 and -8, VP2 of AHSV serotype 9 induced nAbs against serotype Roxadustat solubility dmso 6 (nAb titer of 12 with 95% CI: 3–21) which was not detectable by IPMA, suggesting that the non-nAb is not necessarily higher than nAb. This phenomenon is probably due to the structural similarity and dissimilarity between VP2s of relevant serotypes. Here, we have also studied two cocktails of four or five tuclazepam VP2 proteins. The results suggested a dose-dependent immune

response, since all serotype specific nAb titers were lower after immunization with cocktails of VP2 proteins (10/12.5 μg of each VP2 per animal) than those with individual VP2 immunization (50 μg of VP2 per animal). However, this reduction was not linearly related to the amount of injected VP2. The reduction of 4–5 fold VP2 protein in cocktails resulted in 4 to 40 fold reduced nAb titers compared to single VP2 immunization; e.g. for serotype 5, 179 by single and 53 by cocktail VP2 (±30% difference), and for serotype 9, 853 by single and 19 by cocktail VP2 (±2% difference). This might suggest a negative interference between some of the VP2 proteins in cocktails to induce nAbs. The lower serotype specific nAb titer after immunization with cocktails of VP2 proteins could also be due to the simultaneous presentation of various serotype specific epitopes to the immune system or due to the immunodominance of certain serotype specific epitopes. Thus, formulation of VP2 cocktails to protect horses against all included serotypes is also complicated by differences in immunogenicity and possible interference between VP2 proteins to induce humoral immune responses.